Cuban Trova

Birth of the Trova

During the second half of the 19th century, a form of poetry was born among the working class in the eastern regions of Cuba, sung by cantantes, authors, composers and performers who accompanied themselves on the guitar. This music plays the role of entertainment but also of expression. It allows them to comment on any subject that attracts their attention.

In Santiago, the cantantes were concentrated in the working class neighborhoods of El Tivolí or Los Hoyos and to a lesser extent in San Agustín or El Guayabito. Often manual laborers (barbers, tailors, shoemakers, drivers, shoe shiners, carpenters, bakers, day laborers or cigar rollers), mostly black or mulatto, these performers had no musical training. After their day’s work, they used to get together with friends in peñas (gatherings) to perform their latest compositions. The houses of Paco ‘Paquito’ Portela or Eulalio Limonta host these informal meetings. Eusebio Moreno’s house is even called the “conservatorio”.

They perform in simple places like grocery stores, kiosks, gargotes, the brothels of Barracones (part of the Colón neighborhood, near the port) or more frequently in cafes: Le Bon Calité (San Agustín neighborhood, between Callejón de Gata and Santa Rita), Pajarito (El Tivolí neighborhood, between Moncada and Los Hoyos), Baltabarín (between Calvario and Martí), La Bélgica, La Confronta (San Agustín neighborhood), Japón (El Tivolí neighborhood, between Santa Rosa and Rabí), El Loran, El Reguilete (El Tivolí neighborhood, between Moncada and Los Hoyos), El Cisne Blanco. .. They did not earn their living from music, but their musical talents allowed them to earn a few pesos to supplement their meager salaries.

As early as 1870, there is evidence of meetings between Nicolás Camacho, Evaristo Molina and later Eulalio Limonta and Francisco ‘Pancho’ Castillo at the Campo de Marte (now renamed Plaza de la Libertad or Plaza de Marte).

The emulation of the peñas gives rise to duos, trios, quartets, quintets and estudiantinas (small groups). At night, they sing serenatas under the window of a woman or a friend, spontaneously, until the early morning. This became so popular that it is rare to cross Santiago de Cuba without hearing the songs of one of these groups.

Among these cantantes, José ‘Pepé’ Sánchez is recognized as the precursor of the future Trova. Born on March 19, 1856, it is said that this tailor by profession was an excellent musician, a remarkable guitarist with a beautiful baritone voice. It was said that, although self-taught, he had an extraordinary sense of harmony and composition. Only the best were able to interpret his musical pieces. Pepé’ Sánchez is recognized as the one who gave his definitive creolized form to the Canción Cubana. He structures his texts in a rational way. We owe him the titles “Pobre artista”, “Rosa no. 1”, “Rosa no. 2”, “Rosa no. 3”, “Cristinita”, “Te ví, te amé”, “Cuando escucho tu voz”, “Cuando oí la expresión de tu canto”, “Esperanza”, “Naturaleza”, “Adán y Eva”, “Ángeles y redondillas”, “Legó”, “Himno a Maceo”, or “Me entristeces mujer”, also known as “Tristeza” (1883). As the compositions of the cantantes were transmitted orally, many of them have been lost, although some of them were very successful.

While the musical context was marked by European tunes (Spain, Italy, France) supported by African rhythms, the arrival of the Criolla at the end of the 19th century changed the situation. The cantantes gave birth to a musical movement with its own characteristics that was academically called Neorromanticismo Popular Cubano and that would later be called Trova. It gets rid of its multiple European influences. Its texts and its cadence are marked of a certain Cubanity. Its rhythmic signature is in 2/4 while the custom wants that the Canción is written in 3/4. Finally, the guitar accompaniment is impregnated with the structure of the cinquillo, a rhythm introduced by the “French” of Haiti that has gradually spread to the Oriente.

Pepé’ Sánchez taught music and guitar to another precursor of the genre, Antonio Gumersindo ‘Sindo’ Garay y García. The most prolific composer of this musical movement, his most famous works are “La tarde”, “Perla marina” (1911), “Retorna”, “La baracoesa”, “La alondra”, “El huracán y la palma”, “Adiós a La Habana”, “La mujer bayamesa”, “Tardes grises”, “Guarina” (1912), “Ojos de sirena”, “Rendido”, “Labios de grana”, “Fermania”, “Rayos de oro” or “Clave a Maceo”.

Pepé’ Sánchez trains a number of cantantes:

• Rosendo Ruiz Suárez, a prolific composer: “Naturaleza”, “Falso juramento”, “Junto a un canaveral” (Guajira), “Se va el dulcerito” (Pregón-son), “Mares y arenas” (Criolla, 1911), “La chaúcha”, “Rosina y Virgina”, “Cuba y sus misterios”, “Terina”, “Presagio triste”, or “Confesión” (Bolero);
• Alberto Villalón Morelas, interpreter who made the guitar playing evolve: “Esta muy lejos”, “Yo reiré cuando tú llores”, “Me da miedo quererte” or “Boda negra” ;
• José ‘Chicho’ Ibáñez, the first of these cantantes to specialize in Son, Guaguancó and Abakuá. He developed his own tres technique, preferring this instrument to the guitar. Among his compositions are: “Tóma mamá que te manda tía”, “Evaristo”, “No te metas Caridad”, “Ojalá” (Son), “Yo era dichoso”, “Al fin mujer” (Bolero-Son), “Qué más me pides”, “La saya de Oyá” (Guaguancó) ;
• Emiliano Blez Garbey;
• José ‘Pepé’ Figarola ;
• Manuel Delgado ;
• Leopoldo Rubalcaba ;
• José ‘Pepé’ Bandera ;
• Salvador Adams;
• Roberto Moya;
• Luis Felipe Portes ;
• Juan ‘Che’ Ladrón de Guevara…

Although he has lived in Havana since his youth, Manuel Corona Raimundo is also one of the great cantantes. It is said that whenever he could, he traveled to Santiago where he met ‘Pepé’ Sánchez at the Colón café in 1902. He composed “Doble inconciencia”, “Una mirada”, “Guitara mía”, “Las flores del Edén”, “Mercedes” (1908), “Santa Cecilia” (1918), “Alfonsa”, “Adriana”, “Aurora” or “Longina” (1916).

Sindo’ Garay, Rosendo Ruiz, Manuel Corona Raimundo and Alberto Villalón Morelas were called “the 4 greats of the Trova”. The musical qualities of ‘Chicho’ Ibáñez were equal to those of the latter.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the new generation of santiaguero cantantes also included Ángel Almenares. But most of the creators of what would later be called the Trova migrated to Havana, hoping to improve their economic situation in the capital (‘Sindo’ Garay, Rosendo Ruiz, Alberto Villalón…). In parallel with their professional activity, they go from cafes (Café Vista Alegre, La diana or Vueltabajo) to restaurants (El ariete), from cinemas (during the intermissions and reel changes) to cabarets. Havana reveals new performers: brothers Oscar and Mario Hernandez Falcón, Rafael ‘Nene’ and Enrique ‘Chungo’ Enrizo or Graciano Gómez Vargas. Thanks to the radio, the creations of the cantantes and the oriental musical pattern spread throughout the island. Edison records the first cylinders of ‘Sindo’ Garay in 1906. Matanzas discovers its own interpreters like Manuel Luna Salgado or Isaac Oviedo. Patricio Ballagas Palacio became known in Camagüey. He is the author of “Timidez” (1914) or “Nena”. In Sancti Spíritus, Rafael ‘Teofilito’ Gómez Mayea (“Temo al olvido”, “Ayer pensando en ti”), Miguel Campanioni and Carlos ‘Tata’ Díaz de Villegas impose their style. Eusebio Delfín was discovered in Cienfuegos.

In the 1920s, the appearance of Son tends to dominate all other styles in Havana. The cantantes integrate the sextetos and septetos soneros which obtain a great popularity. The future Trova is colored and linked with the Son. However, these ensembles that gather many musicians are expensive and the small formations of duo or trio type continue to exist. The latter are enriched with a second guitar and small percussion instruments (maracas or claves). In Santiago, Trova and Son evolved more distinctly.

Between 1914 and 1924, María Teresa Vera formed an exceptional duo with Rafael Zequeira that marked the future of Trova. Many of their songs were composed by Manuel Corona Raimundo. When he died, she joined Lorenzo Hierrezuelo to create a new legendary duo. Among the most outstanding compositions of María Teresa Vera are “20 años”, “Porque me siento triste”, “No me sabes querer”, “Yo quiero que tu sepas”, “Cara a Cara”, “Esta vez toco perder” or “He perdido contigo”.

Another essential performer in the evolution of what would later be called Trova is Miguel Matamoros. As a young man he formed a duo with Salvador Adams. He later joined the Trío Oriental with his cousin Alfonso del Río (second guitar) and Miguel Bisbe (second voice and maracas). Alfonso del Río’s lack of availability forced Miguel Matamoros to look for another partner and replaced him with Rafael Cueto. In 1925, Miguel Matamoros and Rafael Cueto met Siro Rodríguez and formed the Matamoros Trio. They participated in the international popularization of the soon to be named Trova.

The cantantes had a profound effect on the music of the 1920s and 1930s in Santiago. In the middle of the 1930s, it became customary to call them trovadores. This name also includes the precursors of the genre such as ‘Pepé’ Sánchez or ‘Sindo’ Garay. A trovador is not simply a singer. The term represents a person, a duo, a trio or a quartet that sings its own compositions, whose lyrics are poetic, and that accompanies itself with the guitar. By extension, it also designates a way of life, often associated with the troubadours. The whole of their repertory, composed of Boleros, Canciones, Guarachas, Habaneras, Criollas, Claves, Bambucos (brought from Colombia at the end of the 19th century by the comings and goings of the trade)… takes the name of Trova, Canción trovadoresca or more rarely of Canción rítmica. In order not to confuse the Trova with the Nueva Trova of the 1960s, it is often called Vieja Trova or Trova Tradicional.

However, the Trova was already disappearing in favor of other musical innovations. It declined during the next two decades, although between 1949 and 1953 Lorenzo ‘Compay Primo’ Hierrezuelo and Máximo Francisco ‘Compay Segundo’ Repilado Muñoz formed the notable duo Los compadres.

Today, Eliades Ochoa and his Cuerteto Patría are one of the few heirs of the Trova.

La Trova Espirituana

Like Santiago de Cuba, the province of Sancti Spíritus discovered its first cantantes in the mid-19th century. Armed with their guitars, they wandered the streets and gathered in squares or in Parque Maceo to share their compositions. Among the first performers were Sebastián Cuervo Serrano (“Mis quejas”, 1884), the matancero Hilario Erice, who lived in Sancti Spíritus, and Alonso Mayea (“¿Quién fuera sol?”, 1896). As for ‘Chano’ Díaz, he is one of the great representatives in Trinidad.

In the 1890s, they will develop a particular style that is specific to this region. Their Boleros, composed in 2/4, follow a singular structure: prelude, first stanza, interlude, repetition of the first stanza, interlude, first stanza, second stanza and final. This unique structure is called Trova Espirituana. At the beginning of the 20th century, composers and performers defined the characteristics of this movement.

The serenade, played at night under a person’s window to show love or friendship, remains a high point for the expression of the movement. These events can mark an important date in the life of the person to whom it is addressed but can also allow the trovadores to make ends meet. The canciones are slow, even very slow, accompanied by string instruments playing in arpeggio. The Boleros are played at a moderate, even lively pace. The Trova Espirituana, callejera (from the street), is intimately linked to these serenades, which brought some musical originality (accompaniment by a violin or saxophone). Many songs were improvised around a female name that was praised one night.

From the first years of the 20th century, the guitarist Miguel Companioni Gómez stands out with his compositions like “Mujer perjura” (1918), “Herminia” or “La lira rota”. He formed a number of duets or trios, especially with Eugenio “Tintino” Marín or with the couple Sigismundo Acosta and Luis Farías. He is followed shortly by Ángel Rafael ‘Teofilito’ Gómez Mayea, a prolific musician with a solid musical knowledge. He will be at the origin of several duos (especially with Augusto Ponte) and trios (including the one with his brothers Misael and Bernardo). Among his compositions are “Pensamiento” (1915), “Si volvieras a mí” (1915) and “Solo por tí” (1906). A few years later came the guitarist and pianist Alfredo Varona, author of “Ocilia” or “La penúltima”. His duets with Ismael Ramos and Manuel Puig marked the musical life of Sancti Spíritus from the end of the 1910s. These trios have the peculiarity of being composed of a main singer and a secondary singer, accompanied by a single guitar and a simple clave. Their songs are played at a moderate or even fast pace.

In Trinidad, Lorenzo Guerrero is the leader and leads Rafael Pomares de la Rosa, Rafael Saroza Valdés or Alejandro Bequer.

In Sancti Spíritus, a whole generation took over: Alfredo ‘Cachito’ Ordaz (guitar), Hector Borges (vocals and percussion), Andrés Borroto (guitar and vocals), Manuel ‘Manolo’ Gallo (guitar), Honorio Muñoz, Juan Rafael Rodríguez (vocals and guitar) or María Luisa Hernández. Little by little, a second guitar was introduced as a complement to the first, which was always present.

The 1930s and 1940s were a flourishing period in Sancti Spíritus. Trovadores were numerous, as were the peñas where they presented their creations. There were more contacts with other trovadorescos centers. These cantantes participate in the Trova intermedia movement. Many duos and trios were formed. The Duo la Madrugada was founded by Sigifredo Mora Palma in 1934 with Manuel Nápoles, Andrés Borroto, Fernando Castillo or ‘Tito’ Fernández.

In 1944, Evelio López, whose specific voice made him stand out from the other groups, formed the Miraflores Duo with Orlando Marín (guitar and second voice). They interpreted the repertoire of Miguel Companioni. During the 1940s, the Hermanos Morgado trio, the Hermanos Saucedo trio (known for their use of three voices and sometimes three guitars, like the Mexican tríos), the Rivadavia trio, the Valdivia trio… At the end of the 1940s, Evelio Rodríguez stood out as one of the most important animators of the city’s musical life. The Espirituano Duo, which he formed with Ramón Huerta, was in great demand in the clubs.

In the early 1950s, Los Chamacos and the historic trio Trio Pensamiento (1953) with ‘Teofilito’ Gómez, Miguel Companioni and Aristides Castañeda were among the most important.

The first years of 1960 continued to be a period rich in trovadores: Vidal Cabrera (“Anita” recorded by ‘Compay Segundo’, “Ayúdame”, “Un son para Ramón” or “Amigos del danzón”), Vidal Borrego (“Amor de media noche”), Juan Cancio, Enrique Castro (“Lo que más he querido” or “Anhelo postumo”), Teresita Díaz and José García in the Duo Teresita y José, Roberto Jiménez or César Pérez (“Como el alba”). In 1960, Roberto Jiménez founded the trio Los Villa. In 1964, when Orlando Marín left the Miraflores Duo for the Pensamiento Trio, he was replaced by José Cardoso. Then in 1972, Manuel Nápoles joined the duo, which became the Miraflores Trio. In 1978, Juan Cancio joined the trio.

Although several composers and interpreters of the Trova Espirituana joined the Nueva Trova between the 1960s and 1970s, the espirituana tradition was maintained in the 1970s and 1980s thanks to artists such as Wilfredo Bécquer or the brothers José and Lázaro Cardoso. Young trovadores renewed the tradition without betraying it: Reinaldo Méndez and his Trio Colonial, Lourdes Caro (“Mi beso raro” or “Tus ojos”) in the duo Las Amigas or the group Yayabo. At the end of the century, among the representatives of the Trova Espirituana, we can mention Carlos Mauel Borroto, Luis Ulloa (guitarist) or Delvis Sarduy Companioni. Among the notable groups, the Trio Taupier in 1991, the Duo Madrigal in 1992, the Trio Cuerdas de Oro, the Trio Espirituano in 1993, the Trio Yayabo in 1999 (Eduardo Morgado, José Reina and Rubén Sosa) or Duo Nuestras Almas (Leticia Ulacia and Rosa Rodríguez accompanied by Claudio Mauri).

La Trova in the world

The words “trova” or “trovador” are also used in other countries of South and Central America (Mexico, Chile, Colombia…) but designate musical styles that have no relation with the Cuban Trova. It is rather a song of protest, often close to the Rock.

The instrumentation

The only instrument that accompanies the voice is the guitar. The trovadores initially use the techniques of rayado and rasgueado. The latter technique, widely used in Spanish music such as Flamenco, is obtained by fanning out the fingers. Thanks to Alberto Villalón Morelas, the game becomes richer and evolves towards the bordoneado. The harmonic progression is carried out by whole tones or chromatic. The phrasing of the guitar is marked by the cinquillo. While preferring small formations, because of the limited volume of the guitar, the first guitar is during the 20th century often complemented by a second guitar or more rarely by a tres and with the influence of the sound of small percussion (maracas or claves).

Eusebio Delfín and Vicente ‘Guyún’ González Rubiera Cortina further enriched the guitar playing technique. Some people use the name Trova intermedia to describe the musical genre born of these developments.

While the first trovadores sang alone, the use of duets quickly became a specificity of the Oriente. Patricio Ballagas Palacio introduced a new way of singing: after an introduction during which the two voices are juxtaposed, the second voice (segundo) interprets in counterpoint a different text from that of the first voice (primo). Optionally, the voices can join together again for the conclusion of the piece.

The lyrics of the Trova address all subjects: love stories, humorous anecdotes, but also nationalism, as various cantantes actively participated in the war of independence. Most of the songs of the Trova are in a romantic register. The texts are frequently 10 feet long verses.

Musical characteristics

The Trova is played in slow rhythm, with rubato (rhythmic freedom). The rhythmic signature is generally in 2/4.

Special thanks to Julien and his ultimate resource on cuban music and dance – this page is merely a translation.

La Trova